중앙 집중식 외환 쌍

Forex Pairs Trading의 통화 통합.
외환 거래의 통합은 중요한 도구입니다. 나에게 공적분은 모든 경제적 환경에서 이익을 얻을 수있는 우수한 중립적 기계 무역 전략의 기초입니다. 시장이 상승 추세, 하락 추세 또는 단순히 옆으로 움직이든, 외환 거래는 일년 내내 이익을 얻을 수 있습니다.
공적분을 활용하는 외환 거래 전략은 통계적 재정 거래와 평균으로의 전환을 기반으로하는 컨버전스 거래의 한 형태로 분류됩니다. 이 유형의 전략은 1980 년대 모건 스탠리 (Morgan Stanley)의 양적 거래 팀이 주식 쌍을 사용하여 처음으로 대중화되었습니다. 그러나 다른 트레이더들도 외환 거래에서도 매우 효과적이라는 것을 알았습니다.
공적분에 기초한 외환 쌍 거래.
공적분에 기반한 외환 거래는 근본적으로 회귀 - 평균 전략입니다. 간단하게 말해서 둘 이상의 외환 쌍이 공적으로 통합 될 때, 이는 개별 외환 쌍들 사이의 가격 스프레드가 시간이 지남에 따라 일관되게 평균값으로 되돌아가는 경향이 있음을 의미합니다.
공적분은 상관 관계가 아니라는 것을 이해하는 것이 중요합니다. 상관 관계는 가격의 공동 움직임에 관한 단기간의 관계입니다. 상관 관계 란 개별 가격이 함께 움직이는 것을 의미합니다. 상관 관계는 일부 거래자에 의존하지만, 그 자체로는 신뢰할 수없는 도구입니다.
다른 한편, 공적분은 가격이 함께 움직이는 것처럼 특정 범위 또는 스프레드 내에서 함께 움직이는 가격의 공동 움직임과 장기적인 관계이다. 나는 공적분이 외환 거래에서 매우 유용한 도구라는 것을 알게되었습니다.
내 외환 거래 중 스프레드가 기계 거래 알고리즘에 의해 계산 된 한계 값까지 넓어지면 나는 쌍 가격 사이의 스프레드를 "짧게"합니다. 다시 말해서, 나는 공적분으로 인해 확산이 0으로 되돌아 갈 것을 내기하고있다.
기본 외환 거래 전략은 매우 간단합니다. 특히 기계 거래 시스템을 사용할 때 : 비슷한 방식으로 움직이는 두 가지 통화 쌍을 선택합니다. 나는 실적이 저조한 통화 쌍을 사고 외제를 판매합니다. 두 쌍 사이의 퍼짐이 수렴 할 때, 나는 이익을 위해 나의 입장을 마감한다.
공적분에 기반한 외환 거래는 시장 중립적 인 전략입니다. 예를 들어 통화 쌍이 폭락하면 거래가 장기적 측면에서 손실을 가져오고 단기적 측면에서 상쇄 효과가 발생할 것입니다. 따라서 모든 통화와 기본 상품이 갑자기 가치를 잃지 않는 한 최악의 시나리오에서는 순매수가 0에 가까워 야합니다.
같은 맥락으로, 많은 시장에서 페어 트레이딩은 자체 매매 트레이딩 전략이다. 왜냐하면 짧은 매도로부터 얻은 수익금이 때때로 긴 포지션을여는데 사용될 수 있기 때문이다. 이 혜택이 없다고하더라도, 공적분을 동원한 외환 거래 쌍은 여전히 ​​잘 작동합니다.
외환 거래를위한 공적분의 이해.
균형 환율은 단기 균형 가격뿐 아니라 장기적인 가격 기대치를 바탕으로 기계적 거래 시스템을 프로그래밍 할 수있게 해주는 외환 거래 쌍방에서 유용합니다.
공적분 중심의 외환 거래의 작동 방식을 이해하려면 먼저 공적분을 정의한 다음 기계적 거래 시스템에서 어떻게 기능 하는지를 설명하는 것이 중요합니다.
앞에서 말했듯이, 공적분은 시계열 집합 사이의 평형 관계를 말합니다. 예를 들어, 균형이 맞지 않는 별도의 외환 쌍의 가격과 같은 시계열 집합 간의 균형 관계를 말합니다. 수학적 전문 용어로 표현되는 공적분 (cointegration)은 시계열에서 비정상 변수 간의 관계를 측정하는 기술입니다.
두 개 이상의 시계열이 각각 1의 루트 값을 가지지 만 선형 조합이 고정되어있는 경우 시계열은 공적분이라고합니다.
간단한 예로서, 주식 시장 지수와 관련 선물 계약의 가격을 고려해보십시오. 이 두 가지 상품의 가격이 단기간에 무작위로 방황 할 수도 있지만 궁극적으로는 균형으로 돌아갈 것이고 편차는 변화 없는.
고전적인 "무작위 걸음 걸이"예를 들어 설명하는 또 다른 예가 있습니다. 카 루핑 밤 이후에 집으로 걸어가는 두 명의 개별 술꾼이 있다고 가정 해 보겠습니다. 이 두 술주정 뱅이가 서로를 모르고 있다고 가정 해 봅시다. 그러므로 개별 경로 사이에 예측 가능한 관계는 없습니다. 그러므로 그들의 운동 사이에는 공적분이 없다.
대조적으로, 개가 가죽 끈에 그의 개를 동반하는 동안 각 술꾼이 귀환을 방황하고 있다는 생각을 고려하십시오. 이 경우, 이 두 가난한 생물의 경로 사이에는 확실한 연결 고리가 있습니다.
이 둘은 각각 단기간에 여전히 개별 통로를 유지하고 있지만 어느 한 쪽에서 어느 한 쪽이 임의로 특정 시점에 임의로 길을 가거나 늦을지라도 항상 가까이서 발견됩니다. 그들 사이의 거리는 상당히 예측 가능하기 때문에 쌍은 공적분이라고한다.
기술 용어로 돌아가서, 두 개의 비 정적 시계열 (예 : 통화 쌍 AB 및 XY의 가상 집합)이있을 경우 이들 간의 차이가 계산 될 때 고정되어 있으며이 쌍을 통합 된 1 차 계열이라고합니다. 또한 I (1) 시리즈를 부르십시오.
이 시리즈들 중 어떤 것도 일정한 값을 유지하지 않더라도 고정 된 AB와 XY의 선형 조합 (I (0)으로 설명 됨)이 있으면 AB와 XY가 공적분됩니다.
위의 간단한 예는 가상의 외환 쌍의 두 시계열로만 구성됩니다. 그러나 공적분의 개념은 더 높은 통합 주문을 사용하는 여러 시계열에도 적용됩니다 ... 여러 개의 개가 각각 다른 길이의 가죽 끈을 동반 한 방랑 술에 관해 생각해보십시오.
실 사회 경제학에서는 소득과 지출, 또는 형법의 엄격함과 감옥 인구의 크기와 같은 쌍의 공적분을 보여주는 사례를 찾는 것이 쉽습니다. 외환 거래에서, 내 초점은 통화의 공적분 된 쌍 사이의 양적 및 예측 가능한 관계를 활용하는 데 있습니다.
예를 들어, 나는이 두 가지 공적분 화 된 가상 통화 쌍인 AB와 XY를보고 있다고 가정하고 그들 사이의 공적분 관계는 AB & # 8211; XY = Z, 여기서 Z는 평균이 0 인 정지 시리즈, 즉 I (0)입니다.
이것은 간단한 거래 전략을 제안하는 것처럼 보일 것이다 : AB-XY & gt; V 및 V가 내 임계 값 트리거 가격 인 경우 AB가 가격이 하락하고 XY가 증가 할 것으로 예상되므로 외환 거래 시스템이 AB를 판매하고 XY를 구매합니다. 또는, AB-XY < - V, 나는 AB를 사고 XY를 팔 것을 기대할 것입니다.
외환 거래에서 가짜 회귀를 피하십시오.
그러나 위의 예에서 제안하는 것처럼 간단하지 않습니다. 실제로, 외환 거래를위한 기계 거래 시스템은 AB와 XY 사이의 R 제곱 값에 의존하는 대신 공적분을 계산해야합니다.
비상업적 인 변수를 다루는 경우 일반 회귀 분석이 부족하기 때문입니다. 그것은 소위 가짜 회귀 (spurious regression)를 야기하는데, 이것은 변수가없는 경우에도 변수들 간의 관계를 암시합니다.
예를 들어, 나는 서로에 대해 2 개의 분리 된 "무작위 걸음"시계열을 회귀 시킨다고 가정 해보자. 선형 관계가 있는지 테스트 할 때 매우 자주 p 값이 낮은 R - 제곱 값과 높은 p 값을 찾습니다. 아직도, 이 2 개의 무작위 도보 사이 아무 관계도 없다.
외환 거래의 공적분 수식 및 테스트.
공적분을위한 가장 간단한 테스트는 다음과 같이 작동하는 Engle-Granger 테스트입니다.
AB t와 XY t가 둘 다 I가 맞는지 확인한다. (1) 최소 제곱 법을 사용하여 공적분 관계 [XY t = aAB t + et]를 계산한다. 공적분 잔차 등이 Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) 테스트.
자세한 그레인저 방정식 :
I (0)은 공적분 관계를 설명한다.
XY t-1? ? AB t-1은 장기간에 걸친 불균형의 정도를 설명하는 반면, Δi는 통화 쌍의 시계열이 불균형으로부터 스스로를 교정하는 속도와 방향이다.
외환 거래에서 Engle-Granger 방법을 사용하면 회귀의 베타 값이 쌍의 거래 크기를 계산하는 데 사용됩니다.
외환 거래에서 Engle-Granger 방법을 사용하는 경우 회귀의 베타 값을 사용하여 쌍의 거래 규모를 계산합니다.
외환 거래에서 공적분에 대한 오차 보정 :
외환 거래를위한 공적분을 사용할 때, 공적분 된 변수가 조정되고 장기 균형으로 어떻게 돌아갈지를 설명하는 것도 도움이됩니다. 예를 들어, 여기에 두 개의 샘플 외환 쌍 시계열이 자동 회귀 적으로 표시됩니다.
공적분에 기초한 외환 쌍 거래.
외환 거래를 위해 기계 거래 시스템을 사용하면 설치와 실행이 매우 간단합니다. 첫째, 나는 그들이 EUR / USD와 GBP / USD와 같이 공적화 될 수있는 것처럼 보이는 두 개의 통화 쌍을 찾는다.
그런 다음 두 쌍 간의 예상 스프레드를 계산합니다. 다음으로, unit-root 테스트 또는 다른 일반적인 방법을 사용하여 스테 틀러 리티를 확인합니다.
내 인바운드 데이터 피드가 제대로 작동하는지 확인하고 기계적 거래 알고리즘이 거래 신호를 생성하도록합니다. 매개 변수를 확인하기 위해 적절한 백 테스트를 수행했다고 가정하면 마침내 내 외환 거래에서 공적분을 사용할 준비가되었습니다.
나는 Cointegration 외환 거래 시스템을 구축하기위한 훌륭한 출발점을 제공하는 MetaTrader 지표를 발견했습니다. 그것은 Bollinger Band 표시기처럼 보이지만 사실 오실레이터는 두 개의 서로 다른 통화 쌍 사이의 가격 차이를 보여줍니다.
이 오실레이터가 높은 극단 또는 저 극단으로 이동하면 페어가 디커플링 (decoupling)되어 거래를 알리는 신호입니다.
그래도 성공을 확신하려면 적절한 거래를 실행하기 전에 Augmented Dickey-Fuller 테스트를 통해 신호를 필터링하는 내 기계적 거래 시스템을 신뢰해야합니다.
물론 자신의 외환 거래를 위해 공적분을 사용하고자하는 사람은 아직 알 고 프로그래밍 기술이 부족하여 숙련 된 프로그래머가 성공한 전문가 고문을 의뢰 할 수 있습니다.
알고리즘 트레이딩의 마법을 통해 데이터 분석을 기반으로 가격 스프레드를 정의하는 기계 거래 시스템을 프로그래밍합니다. 내 알고리즘은 가격 편차를 모니터링 한 다음 시장 비효율을 수확하기 위해 통화 쌍을 자동으로 구매 및 판매합니다.
외환 거래와 함께 공적분을 사용할 때주의해야 할 위험.
Forex 쌍 거래는 전적으로 위험 부담이 없습니다. 무엇보다도 공적분을 이용한 외환 거래는 평균 가치가 과거와 마찬가지로 미래에도 동일 할 것이라는 가정에 근거한 평균 회귀 전략입니다.
앞에서 언급 한 Augmented Dickey-Fuller 테스트는 외환 거래를위한 공적분 관계를 검증하는 데 도움이되지만 미래에 스프레드가 계속해서 공적분 될 것이라는 의미는 아닙니다.
강력한 리스크 관리 규칙에 의거합니다. 즉, 계산 된 역 환위가 무효화되는 경우 또는 내 기계 거래 시스템이 수익성이없는 거래에서 나옵니다.
평균값이 바뀌면 표류가됩니다. 가능한 한 빨리 드리프트를 감지하려고합니다. 다시 말하면 이전에 공적화 된 외환 쌍의 가격이 이전에 계산 된 평균으로 되돌아가는 대신 추세로 움직이기 시작하면 내 기계 거래 시스템의 알고리즘이 가치를 다시 계산해야 할 때입니다.
외환 거래를위한 기계 거래 시스템을 사용할 때이 기사 앞부분에서 언급 한 자기 회귀 식을 사용하여 스프레드를 예측하는 이동 평균을 계산합니다. 그런 다음 계산 된 오류 범위에서 거래를 종료합니다.
Cointegration는 나의 forex 쌍 무역을위한 귀중한 공구이다.
외환 거래에서 공적분 사용은 시장 중립적 인 기계 무역 전략으로 어떤 시장 환경에서도 거래가 가능합니다. 그것은 의미로의 복귀에 기반을 둔 현명한 전략이지만, 다른 회귀 수단을 의미하는 외환 거래 전략의 함정을 피하는 데 도움이됩니다.
수익성있는 기계 거래 시스템에서의 잠재적 인 사용 때문에 외환 거래를위한 공적분은 학술 연구자 및 전문 상인 모두의 관심을 끌었습니다.
이 양에 초점을 맞춘 블로그 기사 또는 주제에 대한이 학술 토론과 거래자 간의 토론에 대해 많은 최근 출판 된 기사가 많이 있습니다.
Cointegration는 나의 Forex 한 쌍 무역에있는 귀중한 공구이고, 나는 당신이 너 자신을 위해 그것으로 볼 것을 강력하게 추천한다.
Tommaso Sillian이 말합니다.
아주 좋은 기사. 그것은 고무적이다. 그것을 쓰는 주셔서 감사합니다!
Harish Nachnani는 말합니다.
상관 관계는 주식 (지분)에도 적용됩니다. 그 차이점은 무엇입니까? 위의 과정을 주식에 적용 할 수 있습니까?
에디 플라워 (Eddie Flower)는 말한다.
예. 동일한 프로세스가 주식 및 파생 상품에 적용될 수 있습니다. 외환 쌍과 비교할 때 주식의 그런 큰 우주가 있기 때문에, 거래를위한 잠재적 인 기회의 더 많은 수가 있어야합니다. 오늘날의 거래 시스템의 수 많은 기능을 통해 많은 관계 세트를 실시간으로 신속하게 조사 할 수 있습니다. 또한 옵션 통합 자들에 의해 공적분을 사용할 수 있습니다. 특정 종목 / 옵션 간의 가격 관계로 인해 거래자가 상당히 위험한 종목에 참여할 수있는 인기있는 코카 콜라 - 펩시 스프레드와 같은 결과를 기대할 수 있습니다.
Harish Nachnani는 말합니다.
이 전략을 사용하여 일주일 또는 수주에 걸쳐 거래합니까? 또한 어떤 프로그래밍 언어를 권하고 싶습니다. R은 계산을 실행하는 데 시간이 걸리며 일간 거래 일 경우 지연이 발생합니다.
프로그래밍 언어는 하루 종일 거래의 중요성을 느끼지 못합니다. Perl, Python, C / C ++ 및 C #과 같은 주요 언어도 좋습니다. R은 매우 빠르지 만 메모리를 동적으로 할당해야하는 경우 느려집니다.
나는 매일 차트를 사용하여 거래하며 2 ~ 2 주 동안 대부분의 거래를 유지합니다. Shaun은 전문 프로그래머이며, 주어진 거래 전략에 대해 최상의 결과를 얻으려면 항상 최상의 프로그래밍 언어를 사용하는 자신의 판단을 신뢰합니다. 사실, Shaun은 공적분 및 기타 요소를 활용할 수있는 균형 잡힌 성과를 거둔 프로그램을 만들 수 있습니다. 견적을 원하신다면 즉시 연락하십시오.
Chris Zimmer는 말합니다.
이 MT4의 구현에는 약간의 관심이 있습니다. 코드에서이 전략을 구현 한 세부 사항을 제공 할 수 있으면 czimmeronestepremoved로 보내주십시오.
나는 나의 석사를 위해 FX에서 공적분 전략에 관한 작은 프로젝트를하고있다. 나는 많은 통화 쌍에 대한 공적분 테스트를 실시했다고 생각합니다. 통계적으로 크게 공적분을 발견 한 사람은 누구입니까?
Eddie가 실제로 숫자를 사용했다고 생각하지 않습니다. 이 기사는 개념에 대한 전반적인 가이드가 되려고하지만 진실한 전략이 될 수는 없습니다.
1) USD / JPY 및 EUR / CHF.
2) EUR / PLN 및 EUR / HUF.
3) USD / TRY 및 USD / ZAR.
4) AUD / USD 및 NZD / USD.
5) EUR / NOK 및 EUR / SEK.
나는이 것들이 상당히 상관 관계가 있다는 것을 알고 있지만 그것은 공적분을 암시하지 않는다.
Camilo Romero는 말합니다.
좋은 외환 쌍이 공적합니다 :
시장 중립적 인 전략이 없기 때문에 USDJPY / EURCHF는 공적분이 될 것입니다.
공유해 주셔서 감사합니다.
Camilo Romero는 말합니다.
누구든지 평균 회귀 전략을 사용하여 백 테스트 코드를 구현 했습니까?
나는 두 개의 외환 쌍 사이에 pip 값을 주어야합니까?
누구든지 코드 백 테스트 비용을 추가하고 수익성있는 결과를 얻었습니까?
나는 누군가가 가지고 있다고 확신하지만 단기 차트에 대해 확실한 답을 찾을 수있는 곳이 아닙니다. 여러분은 장기적인 공동 연구를 할 수는 있지만, 제가 한 연구는 아닙니다.
유일한 공적분은 유로와 CHF 그리고 AUD와 NZD 간의 유일한 친목 무역이며, 이 국가와 중앙 은행 간의 경제는이 공적분을 창출하고있다.
EUR 및 GBP가 아닌가요?
Robert J Armagost가 말했습니다.
안녕, 에디. 훌륭한 기사. 나는 10 년 동안의 차트를 생각하면서 다시 테스트 해왔다. & # 8221; 나는 이것을 생각한 최초의 사람이 될 수 없다! & # 8221; 이 사이트를 발견했을 때. 이것을 작성해 주셔서 대단히 감사드립니다. 더 이상 혼자라고 느끼지 않습니다. ?? 어떤 브로커를 사용하는지 궁금하거나 여러 중개인을 사용하십니까? 시간 내 줘서 고마워.
근실하게 로버트 J. Armagost.
내가 사용하는 주요 브로커는 Pepperstone과 STO (TopTradr를 통해)입니다.
안녕하세요 Shaun 저는이 전략을 수동으로 거래 해 왔습니다. 이것을 자동화 할 소프트웨어가 있습니까? (그래서 더 이상 심야에 일어나지 않아도됩니다.) 시간 내 주셔서 감사합니다.
선반에서 벗어나지 만 우리가 만들 수있는 무언가입니다. 견적을 얻기 위해 입장 및 퇴장 규정에 저를 쏴주세요. infeestestremoved.
로버트 & # 8212; 좋은 의견에 감사드립니다. Shaun은 이러한 유형의 거래 전략을 구현할 수있는 올바른 도구를 보유하고 있으며, 그의 중개인 권고 사항에 전적으로 동의합니다. 의견을 주셔서 다시 한번 감사드립니다! EF.

Forex Pairs Trading의 통화 통합.
외환 거래의 통합은 중요한 도구입니다. 나에게 공적분은 모든 경제적 환경에서 이익을 얻을 수있는 우수한 중립적 기계 무역 전략의 기초입니다. 시장이 상승 추세, 하락 추세 또는 단순히 옆으로 움직이든, 외환 거래는 일년 내내 이익을 얻을 수 있습니다.
공적분을 활용하는 외환 거래 전략은 통계적 재정 거래와 평균으로의 전환을 기반으로하는 컨버전스 거래의 한 형태로 분류됩니다. 이 유형의 전략은 1980 년대 모건 스탠리 (Morgan Stanley)의 양적 거래 팀이 주식 쌍을 사용하여 처음으로 대중화되었습니다. 그러나 다른 트레이더들도 외환 거래에서도 매우 효과적이라는 것을 알았습니다.
공적분에 기초한 외환 쌍 거래.
공적분에 기반한 외환 거래는 근본적으로 회귀 - 평균 전략입니다. 간단하게 말해서 둘 이상의 외환 쌍이 공적으로 통합 될 때, 이는 개별 외환 쌍들 사이의 가격 스프레드가 시간이 지남에 따라 일관되게 평균값으로 되돌아가는 경향이 있음을 의미합니다.
공적분은 상관 관계가 아니라는 것을 이해하는 것이 중요합니다. 상관 관계는 가격의 공동 움직임에 관한 단기간의 관계입니다. 상관 관계 란 개별 가격이 함께 움직이는 것을 의미합니다. 상관 관계는 일부 거래자에 의존하지만, 그 자체로는 신뢰할 수없는 도구입니다.
다른 한편, 공적분은 가격이 함께 움직이는 것처럼 특정 범위 또는 스프레드 내에서 함께 움직이는 가격의 공동 움직임과 장기적인 관계이다. 나는 공적분이 외환 거래에서 매우 유용한 도구라는 것을 알게되었습니다.
내 외환 거래 중 스프레드가 기계 거래 알고리즘에 의해 계산 된 한계 값까지 넓어지면 나는 쌍 가격 사이의 스프레드를 "짧게"합니다. 다시 말해서, 나는 공적분으로 인해 확산이 0으로 되돌아 갈 것을 내기하고있다.
기본 외환 거래 전략은 매우 간단합니다. 특히 기계 거래 시스템을 사용할 때 : 비슷한 방식으로 움직이는 두 가지 통화 쌍을 선택합니다. 나는 실적이 저조한 통화 쌍을 사고 외제를 판매합니다. 두 쌍 사이의 퍼짐이 수렴 할 때, 나는 이익을 위해 나의 입장을 마감한다.
공적분에 기반한 외환 거래는 시장 중립적 인 전략입니다. 예를 들어 통화 쌍이 폭락하면 거래가 장기적 측면에서 손실을 가져오고 단기적 측면에서 상쇄 효과가 발생할 것입니다. 따라서 모든 통화와 기본 상품이 갑자기 가치를 잃지 않는 한 최악의 시나리오에서는 순매수가 0에 가까워 야합니다.
같은 맥락으로, 많은 시장에서 페어 트레이딩은 자체 매매 트레이딩 전략이다. 왜냐하면 짧은 매도로부터 얻은 수익금이 때때로 긴 포지션을여는데 사용될 수 있기 때문이다. 이 혜택이 없다고하더라도, 공적분을 동원한 외환 거래 쌍은 여전히 ​​잘 작동합니다.
외환 거래를위한 공적분의 이해.
균형 환율은 단기 균형 가격뿐 아니라 장기적인 가격 기대치를 바탕으로 기계적 거래 시스템을 프로그래밍 할 수있게 해주는 외환 거래 쌍방에서 유용합니다.
공적분 중심의 외환 거래의 작동 방식을 이해하려면 먼저 공적분을 정의한 다음 기계적 거래 시스템에서 어떻게 기능 하는지를 설명하는 것이 중요합니다.
앞에서 말했듯이, 공적분은 시계열 집합 사이의 평형 관계를 말합니다. 예를 들어, 균형이 맞지 않는 별도의 외환 쌍의 가격과 같은 시계열 집합 간의 균형 관계를 말합니다. 수학적 전문 용어로 표현되는 공적분 (cointegration)은 시계열에서 비정상 변수 간의 관계를 측정하는 기술입니다.
두 개 이상의 시계열이 각각 1의 루트 값을 가지지 만 선형 조합이 고정되어있는 경우 시계열은 공적분이라고합니다.
간단한 예로서, 주식 시장 지수와 관련 선물 계약의 가격을 고려해보십시오. 이 두 가지 상품의 가격이 단기간에 무작위로 방황 할 수도 있지만 궁극적으로는 균형으로 돌아갈 것이고 편차는 변화 없는.
고전적인 "무작위 걸음 걸이"예를 들어 설명하는 또 다른 예가 있습니다. 카 루핑 밤 이후에 집으로 걸어가는 두 명의 개별 술꾼이 있다고 가정 해 보겠습니다. 이 두 술주정 뱅이가 서로를 모르고 있다고 가정 해 봅시다. 그러므로 개별 경로 사이에 예측 가능한 관계는 없습니다. 그러므로 그들의 운동 사이에는 공적분이 없다.
대조적으로, 개가 가죽 끈에 그의 개를 동반하는 동안 각 술꾼이 귀환을 방황하고 있다는 생각을 고려하십시오. 이 경우, 이 두 가난한 생물의 경로 사이에는 확실한 연결 고리가 있습니다.
이 둘은 각각 단기간에 여전히 개별 통로를 유지하고 있지만 어느 한 쪽에서 어느 한 쪽이 임의로 특정 시점에 임의로 길을 가거나 늦을지라도 항상 가까이서 발견됩니다. 그들 사이의 거리는 상당히 예측 가능하기 때문에 쌍은 공적분이라고한다.
기술 용어로 돌아가서, 두 개의 비 정적 시계열 (예 : 통화 쌍 AB 및 XY의 가상 집합)이있을 경우 이들 간의 차이가 계산 될 때 고정되어 있으며이 쌍을 통합 된 1 차 계열이라고합니다. 또한 I (1) 시리즈를 부르십시오.
이 시리즈들 중 어떤 것도 일정한 값을 유지하지 않더라도 고정 된 AB와 XY의 선형 조합 (I (0)으로 설명 됨)이 있으면 AB와 XY가 공적분됩니다.
위의 간단한 예는 가상의 외환 쌍의 두 시계열로만 구성됩니다. 그러나 공적분의 개념은 더 높은 통합 주문을 사용하는 여러 시계열에도 적용됩니다 ... 여러 개의 개가 각각 다른 길이의 가죽 끈을 동반 한 방랑 술에 관해 생각해보십시오.
실 사회 경제학에서는 소득과 지출, 또는 형법의 엄격함과 감옥 인구의 크기와 같은 쌍의 공적분을 보여주는 사례를 찾는 것이 쉽습니다. 외환 거래에서, 내 초점은 통화의 공적분 된 쌍 사이의 양적 및 예측 가능한 관계를 활용하는 데 있습니다.
예를 들어, 나는이 두 가지 공적분 화 된 가상 통화 쌍인 AB와 XY를보고 있다고 가정하고 이들 사이의 공적분 관계는 AB & # 8211; XY = Z, 여기서 Z는 평균이 0 인 정지 시리즈, 즉 I (0)입니다.
이것은 간단한 거래 전략을 제안하는 것처럼 보일 것이다 : AB-XY & gt; V 및 V가 내 임계 값 트리거 가격 인 경우 AB가 가격이 하락하고 XY가 증가 할 것으로 예상되므로 외환 거래 시스템이 AB를 판매하고 XY를 구매합니다. 또는, AB-XY < - V, 나는 AB를 사고 XY를 팔 것을 기대할 것입니다.
외환 거래에서 가짜 회귀를 피하십시오.
그러나 위의 예에서 제안하는 것처럼 간단하지 않습니다. 실제로, 외환 거래를위한 기계 거래 시스템은 AB와 XY 사이의 R 제곱 값에 의존하는 대신 공적분을 계산해야합니다.
비상업적 인 변수를 다루는 경우 일반 회귀 분석이 부족하기 때문입니다. 그것은 소위 가짜 회귀 (spurious regression)를 야기하는데, 이것은 변수가없는 경우에도 변수들 간의 관계를 암시합니다.
예를 들어, 나는 서로에 대해 2 개의 "무작위 걸음 걸이"시계열을 회귀 시킨다고 가정 해보자. 선형 관계가 있는지 테스트 할 때 매우 자주 p 값이 낮은 R - 제곱 값과 높은 p 값을 찾습니다. 아직도, 이 2 개의 무작위 도보 사이 아무 관계도 없다.
외환 거래의 공적분 수식 및 테스트.
공적분을위한 가장 간단한 테스트는 다음과 같이 작동하는 Engle-Granger 테스트입니다.
AB t와 XY t가 둘 다 I가 맞는지 확인한다. (1) 최소 제곱 법을 사용하여 공적분 관계 [XY t = aAB t + et]를 계산한다. 공적분 잔차 등이 Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) 테스트.
자세한 그레인저 방정식 :
I (0)은 공적분 관계를 설명한다.
XY t-1 - βAB t-1은 장기간에 걸친 불균형의 정도를 설명하는 반면, αi는 통화 쌍의 시계열이 불균형을 바로 잡는 속도와 방향이다.
외환 거래에서 Engle-Granger 방법을 사용하면 회귀의 베타 값이 쌍의 거래 크기를 계산하는 데 사용됩니다.
외환 거래에서 Engle-Granger 방법을 사용하면 회귀의 베타 값이 쌍의 거래 크기를 계산하는 데 사용됩니다.
외환 거래에서 공적분에 대한 오차 보정 :
외환 거래를 위해 공적분을 사용할 때, 공적분 된 변수가 조정되고 장기 균형으로 어떻게 돌아갈지를 설명하는 것도 도움이됩니다. 예를 들어, 다음은 두 개의 샘플 외환 쌍의 시계열이 자동 회귀 적으로 표시되는 것입니다.
공적분에 기초한 외환 쌍 거래.
외환 거래를 위해 기계 거래 시스템을 사용하면 설치와 실행이 매우 간단합니다. 첫째, 나는 그들이 EUR / USD와 GBP / USD와 같이 공적화 될 수있는 것처럼 보이는 두 개의 통화 쌍을 찾는다.
그런 다음 두 쌍 간의 예상 스프레드를 계산합니다. 다음으로, unit-root 테스트 또는 다른 일반적인 방법을 사용하여 스테 틀러 리티를 확인합니다.
내 인바운드 데이터 피드가 제대로 작동하는지 확인하고 기계적 거래 알고리즘이 거래 신호를 생성하도록합니다. 매개 변수를 확인하기 위해 적절한 백 테스트를 수행했다고 가정하면 마침내 내 외환 거래에서 공적분을 사용할 준비가되었습니다.
나는 Cointegration 외환 거래 시스템을 구축하기위한 훌륭한 출발점을 제공하는 MetaTrader 지표를 발견했습니다. 그것은 Bollinger Band 표시기처럼 보이지만 사실 오실레이터는 두 개의 서로 다른 통화 쌍 사이의 가격 차이를 보여줍니다.
이 오실레이터가 높은 극단 또는 저 극단으로 이동하면 페어가 디커플링 (decoupling)되어 거래를 알리는 신호입니다.
그래도 성공을 확신하려면 적절한 거래를 실행하기 전에 Augmented Dickey-Fuller 테스트를 통해 신호를 필터링하는 내 기계적 거래 시스템을 신뢰해야합니다.
물론 자신의 외환 거래를 위해 공적분을 사용하고자하는 사람은 아직 알 고 프로그래밍 기술이 부족하여 숙련 된 프로그래머가 성공한 전문가 고문을 의뢰 할 수 있습니다.
알고리즘 트레이딩의 마법을 통해 데이터 분석을 기반으로 가격 스프레드를 정의하는 기계 거래 시스템을 프로그래밍합니다. 내 알고리즘은 가격 편차를 모니터링 한 다음 시장 비효율을 수확하기 위해 통화 쌍을 자동으로 구매 및 판매합니다.
외환 거래와 함께 공적분을 사용할 때주의해야 할 위험.
Forex 쌍 거래는 전적으로 위험 부담이 없습니다. 무엇보다도 공적분을 이용한 외환 거래는 평균 가치가 과거와 마찬가지로 미래에도 동일 할 것이라는 가정에 근거한 평균 회귀 전략입니다.
앞에서 언급 한 Augmented Dickey-Fuller 테스트는 외환 거래를위한 공적분 관계를 검증하는 데 도움이되지만 미래에 스프레드가 계속해서 공적분 될 것이라는 의미는 아닙니다.
강력한 리스크 관리 규칙에 의거합니다. 즉, 계산 된 역 환위가 무효화되는 경우 또는 내 기계 거래 시스템이 수익성이없는 거래에서 나옵니다.
평균값이 바뀌면 표류가됩니다. 가능한 한 빨리 드리프트를 감지하려고합니다. 다시 말하면 이전에 공적화 된 외환 쌍의 가격이 이전에 계산 된 평균으로 되돌아가는 대신 추세로 움직이기 시작하면 내 기계 거래 시스템의 알고리즘이 가치를 다시 계산해야 할 때입니다.
외환 거래를위한 기계 거래 시스템을 사용할 때이 기사 앞부분에서 언급 한 자기 회귀 식을 사용하여 스프레드를 예측하는 이동 평균을 계산합니다. 그런 다음 계산 된 오류 범위에서 거래를 종료합니다.
Cointegration는 나의 forex 쌍 무역을위한 귀중한 공구이다.
외환 거래에서 공적분 사용은 시장 중립적 인 기계 무역 전략으로 어떤 시장 환경에서도 거래가 가능합니다. 그것은 의미로의 복귀에 기반을 둔 현명한 전략이지만, 다른 회귀 수단을 의미하는 외환 거래 전략의 함정을 피하는 데 도움이됩니다.
수익성있는 기계 거래 시스템에서의 잠재적 인 사용 때문에 외환 거래를위한 공적분은 학술 연구자 및 전문 상인 모두의 관심을 끌었습니다.
이 양에 초점을 맞춘 블로그 기사 또는 주제에 대한이 학술 토론과 거래자 간의 토론에 대해 많은 최근 출판 된 기사가 많이 있습니다.
Cointegration는 나의 Forex 한 쌍 무역에있는 귀중한 공구이고, 나는 당신이 너 자신을 위해 그것으로 볼 것을 강력하게 추천한다.
21 응답.
아주 좋은 기사. 그것은 고무적이다. 그것을 쓰는 주셔서 감사합니다!
상관 관계는 주식 (지분)에도 적용됩니다. 그 차이점은 무엇입니까? 위의 과정을 주식에 적용 할 수 있습니까?
예. 동일한 프로세스가 주식 및 파생 상품에 적용될 수 있습니다. 외환 쌍과 비교할 때 주식의 그런 큰 우주가 있기 때문에, 거래를위한 잠재적 인 기회의 더 많은 수가 있어야합니다. 오늘날의 거래 시스템의 수 많은 기능을 통해 많은 관계 세트를 실시간으로 신속하게 조사 할 수 있습니다. 또한 옵션 통합 자들에 의해 공적분을 사용할 수 있습니다. 특정 종목 / 옵션 간의 가격 관계로 인해 거래자가 상당히 위험한 종목에 참여할 수있는 인기있는 코카 콜라 - 펩시 스프레드와 같은 결과를 기대할 수 있습니다.
이 전략을 사용하여 일주일 또는 수주에 걸쳐 거래합니까? 또한, 어떤 프로그래밍 언어를 권하고 싶습니다. R은 계산을 실행하는 데 시간이 걸리며 일간 거래 일 경우 지연이 발생합니다.
프로그래밍 언어는 하루 종일 거래의 중요성을 느끼지 못합니다. Perl, Python, C / C ++ 및 C #과 같은 주요 언어도 좋습니다. R can be extremely fast but it slows down if it’s forced to dynamically allocate memory.
I trade using daily charts, and I stay in most trades for a couple of days to a couple of weeks. Shaun is an expert programmer, and I always trust his judgment to use the best programming language to obtain the best results for a given trading strategy. In fact, Shaun can create a well-balanced, winning program to leverage cointegration and other factors as well. If you’d like a quote, please contact him directly at infoonestepremoved.
There is some interest in an implementation of this for MT4. If you can you provide some specifics on your implementation of this strategy in code, please send to czimmeronestepremoved.
I am doing a small project on cointegration strategies in FX for my MSc. I believe you ran cointegration tests on a lot of currency pairs. Which ones did you find to be statistically significantly cointegrated?
I don’t think Eddie actually ran the numbers. The article is intended to be an overall guide to the concept, but not quite to the point of being a bona fide strategy.
1) USD/JPY and EUR/CHF.
2) EUR/PLN and EUR/HUF.
3) USD/TRY and USD/ZAR.
4) AUD/USD and NZD/USD.
5) EUR/NOK and EUR/SEK.
I know these ones are quite highly correlated, but that doesn’t imply cointegration.
There are good forex pairs cointegrated:
I don’t thing USDJPY / EURCHF would be a cointegrated pair because there will not be a market-neutral strategy.
공유해 주셔서 감사합니다.
Has anyone implemented a backtest code using mean reversion strategy?
Should I ajust pip values between two forex pairs?
Has anyone added commission cost to backtest code and got profitable results?
I’m sure someone has, but it’s not something where you’re going to find an obvious answer on short term charts. You may find long term cointegrations, but that’s not research I’ve done.
The only cointegration is between EUR and CHF and between AUD and NZD since are the only intimate trade and economics between this countries and central banks are creating this cointegration.
Not EUR and GBP?
Hello Eddie. Excellent article. I have been back testing 10 years of charts thinking ” I can’t be the first person to have thought of this!” when I found this site. Thanks so much for writing this. I don’t feel quite so alone anymore. 🙂 Just wondering which broker you use or do you use multiple brokers. Thanks for your time.
Sincerely Robert J. Armagost.
The main broker that I use is Pepperstone and STO (via TopTradr).
Hello Shaun I have been trading this strategy manually. Do have software to automate this? (So I don’t have to get up in the middle of the night anymore) Thanks for your time.
Not off the shelf, but it’s something that we can build. Shoot me an with your entry and exit rules to get an estimate. infoonestepremoved.
Robert — Thanks for your good feedback. Shaun has the right tools to implement this type of trading strategy, and I entirely agree with his broker recommendations, Thanks again for commenting! EF.

Mechanical Forex.
Trading in the FX market using mechanical trading strategies.
Cointegration in the Forex market.
From the many different types of statistical arbitrage available, pairs trading is perhaps one of the most popular. In pairs trading a trader will attempt to exploit the linear relationship between the values of two instruments, attempting to buy/sell them when the relationship between their values increases/decreases to values that offer enough profit potential. However pairs trading does not only require a linear correlation to exist but it also requires the instruments to be cointegrated, a fundamental property that ensures a fundamental connection between the instruments that diminishes the probability of the spread between both instruments “blowing up” (widening far beyond what is statistically expected). Although pairs trading is usually described in stocks/commodities, we rarely see any study of cointegration in the FX market. Today we’re going to look at some potential cointegrations in the FX market, why they exist and how they might be exploited.
Let us begin by defining what we mean by cointegration. Two series are cointegrated when they share a common stochastic drift. The typical example to explain cointegration talks about a man who goes to a bar with his dog. After getting drunk and leaving the bar both the man and the dog walk the same path home, although their stochastic drift – which is the random way in which the man walks and the dog wonders along the way – are different. When this happens their paths are in fact correlated but they are not cointegrated. If the man instead decides to put a leash on the dog their paths become cointegrated because they now share a common stochastic drift that is determined by the length of the leash. The man and the dog cannot be separated further than their leash allows, which makes any random movements they make beyond a certain length common to both (as they would pull on each other). In statistics we can evaluate for cointegration using several different tests from which theВ Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test is most popularly used. Note that this test evaluates only stationarity – not exactly cointegration – so another test such as a Johansen test is necessary to confirm cointegration.
When looking at classic examples of cointegration in financial time series you’ll notice that instruments that are cointegrated generally have some strong fundamental reasons to be cointegrated. The “leash” is a fundamental relationship between both instruments, their common stochastic drift. This relationship is usually very strong, for example two oil producing companies that share refineries in broadly the same countries and have the same clients, they are so tightly put together that it is very improbable for any random event to affect one without affecting the other. This is what makes deviations so tantalizing to exploit. В In Forex however, the story is a bit different because countries have a very hard time being so fundamentally similar.
You can actually see this easily when you look at the last year of data for several FX pairs that we usually view as correlated. For example the EUR/USD and GBP/USD traditionally have a large correlation. A normalized plot showing the last year of data shows you that both pairs indeed tend to move in the same direction but it is clear that this relationship does not follow the same stochastic drift. An ADF test using the last year of data for these two pairs will give you a value of 0.28 which is simply far too large to reject the null hypothesis. Looking at other similar pairs reveals very similar results, pairs like AUDUSD|NZDUSD – which are even more correlated than the EURUSD|GBPUSD turn out to also not be cointegrated.
So are there any cointegrations in the FX market? Actually the answer is yes. The Swiss National Bank’s decision to create a floor on the EURCHF at 1.20 generated a “leash” that made several pairs share a stochastic drift. For example the EURUSD and the CHFUSD are now cointegrated due to this fact. An ADF test will give you a value less than 0.01 for this pair, suggesting that they are indeed cointegrated (confirmed by the Johansen test as well). All similar CHF containing pairs also show cointegrations, such as the EURJPY|CHFJPY and the EURAUD|AUDCHF. This cointegrations all arise from the EURCHF peg, something which is evident when you look at the spread value as a function of time between any of these pairs. The third image shows you the spread of the EURUSD|CHFUSD pair as a function of time, it is no surprise that this is the exact same graph as the EURCHF for the past year. As the length of the “leash” varies, so does the value of the spread on the cointegrated pairs.
Could we take advantage of these cointegrations? Well, you certainly can. There are several ways in which cointegration can be traded but with a varying “leash” a good way is probably to trade the bollinger bands around the spread. You can trade on any timeframes but even when trading the daily timeframe you can make some money. The fourth image shows a very simple simulation in R where I traded the 3 pairs mentioned above, using 1:10 leverage, on a 10 period moving average using 1 standard deviation for band distances. The simulations show a 25% profit with a 10% drawdown within the past year, not too great but not too bad either. It is possible that further refinements and entries/exits on lower timeframes can indeed increase these margins.
One important thing to remember here is that the leash is a peg from a central bank. If this peg for some reason stops existing it is possible that this cointegration will simply vanish. It is therefore advisable to keep an eye on fundamental developments and stop trading the cointegration if this arises. It is also important to constantly repeat the statistical tests for cointegration as new data comes in so that you can stop trading any of these pairs as soon as the cointegration does show to break. If you would like to learn more about FX trading and how you too can design your own trading strategiesВ please consider joiningВ Asirikuy, a website filled with educational videos, trading systems, development and a sound, honest and transparent approach towards automated trading in general . I hope you enjoyed this article ! :o)
6 Responses to “Cointegration in the Forex market”
& # 8221; In statistics we can evaluate for cointegration using three different tests from which the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test is the most popular.”
Yo, this is a stationarity check. it does not imply cointegration.
This is true, however when the result of this test is positive for financial series they are always cointegrated, this is why it is so popularly used for this purpose I believe. You can however perform a Johansen test as well or a Engle–Granger two step test. In the examples used on this article all series that pass the ADF test also pass the Johansen test, showing they are cointegrated.
i will be more than happy if you could share your r code in order to learn how to do this process.
Spread trading on EURUSD|CHFUSD sounds equivalent to trading EURCHF itself, which, as is actually directly possible at most brokers, should be preferred (pay only half the spread/commission costs). An EURUSD|CHFUSD spread is in fact a synthetic instrument for EURCHF.
So how is this spread trading any different (for the better)?
Thanks for commenting :o) You’re clearly right, it’s the same as trading a bollinger band strategy on the EUR/CHF. As mentioned on the article the spread is actually the same chart as the EUR/CHF. The cointegration of the EURUSD|CHFUSD is actually reflected as a tendency to return to the mean on the EUR/CHF. If you were going to trade this in practice you would indeed use the EUR/CHF to save trading costs instead of buying/selling EURUSD and USDCHF.
Great article overall but confusing in some places. As one comment’or has pointed out, ADF test is a unit root test. It is a formal test used to establish whether a price series is stationary or not. If you get a P value of more than 1%, 5% or 10% you can only fail to reject the null of unit root based on the significance level you are comfortable with. This does not infer the presence of co-integration.
The power of the ADF is also documented to be low so most researchers now go ahead to cross check with a complementary test such as KPSS.
It will be interesting to see the R code so we can also run it and see the results. You do mention that the Johansen test confirms the presence of co-integration, so all in all I believe your findings are on solid ground.
Some interesting questions that come up is how stable is the co-integration relationship? How frequently does the long run relationship estimate change and how big are these changes when they do occur.
Overall great article, keep them coming and do share some R code.

Cointegrated forex pairs

Pairs trading is a form of mean reversion that has a distinct advantage of always being hedged against market movements. It is generally a high alpha strategy when backed up by some rigorous statistics. This notebook runs through the following concepts.
The notebook is intended to be an introduction to the concept, and whereas this notebook only features one pair, you would probably want your algorithm to consider many pairs at once.
The notebook was originally created for a presentation at Harvard’s Applied CS department and has since been used at Stanford, Cornell, and several other venues. If you’re interested in learning more about how Quantopian is being used as a teaching tool at top universities, please contact me at [ protected]
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Here’s a very simple algorithm based on the approach presented in the notebook.
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Here’s a more sophisticated algorithm written by Ernie Chan. This algorithm computes a hedge ratio rather than just holding equal amounts of each security.
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Very useful stuff.
What makes it lose systematically for nearly 3 months? Does Cointegration fail in that period?
Basically yes, they turned out not to be cointegrated in that time frame, but returned to being conitegrated in the long term.
I think the drawdown you point out is a strong case for why you would actually want many pairs trading at the same time. Pairs can be cointegrated over different time scales, and any given one will not always be in a tradable state (big spread, small spread). By increasing your sample size, you can make it far more likely that at least one pair will be strongly tradable state at a given time, and smooth out the weird bumps you see here.
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Thanks for this. Very useful indeed. I noticed you used Augmented-Dickey Fuller test for the cointegration test. Do you have similar implementation using Johansen test? I'm not able to find the johansen test with python.
It appears that whereas there have been some attempts to add the Johansen test to the statsmodels library, currently there is no built-in implementation. Here, for instance, is a 3rd party implementation. I'm not sure when it will get added to the Python libraries, is there a way you can work around not having it?
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감사. I did see that link. Pretty complicated to implement and to write it all in the IDE. In fact, Satya B attempted it here quantopian/posts/trading-baskets-co-integrated-with-spy.
The beauty of Johansen test is that it generates eigenvectors, which I think you can use other methods to calculate though I can't recall at the moment, for up to 12 assets and many other things, which can be used to create a basket. I was looking at one of the index arb strategy of Ernie and attempting to replicate it on Q's platform to assess the performance after fees/comm etc. I noticed fees seemed to chew up a lot of the performance. The ABGB & FSLR pair above has an sharpe ratio of 0.75 but ended with sharpe ratio of -0.29. A lot of seeming profitable pairs turned out to be non profitable after bid/ask spread, fees, commission etc. Hence, I am looking at 3 or more stocks pair trading, and index arb. johansen test will make this easier to implement.
I shall keep trying.
The notebook is an excellent statistical introduction to pairs trading, I recommend anyone interested in the topic also look into some of the financial research. Anatomy of Pairs Trading is a good start, and the references are helpful as well. Two more general papers on risk arbitrage strategies are Characteristics of Risk and Return in Risk Arbitrage and Limited Arbitrage in Equity Markets . There are some expensive lessons people have learned about running these kinds of strategies, and it's worth knowing the lessons in advance. Forewarned is forearmed.
Anthony, good to see you here! I have been looking for a good implementation of the Johansen test for a while but couldn't find one. There is a pretty long (but stale) discussion and pull request on github about including it in statsmodels: github/statsmodels/statsmodels/issues/448 and github/josef-pkt/statsmodels/commit/bf79e8ecb12d946f1113213692db6dac5df2b6e9 It's really too bad as definitely in quant finance this is pretty widely used.
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Aaron. Thank you for the heads up. Appreciate it coming from your. I shall spend some time with those papers.
Thomas. Thanks for the link. As you said, it is a bit old. Better than naught I suppose.
Here is a python implementation for vector error correction models. You can also use it to find cointegration weights. econ. schreiberlin. de/software/vecmclass. py.
Here is a version of Ernie Chan's algorithm modified to trade multiple pairs. This is a good way to obtain multiple uncorrelated return streams and reduce the beta of the overall strategy.
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Delany, Are there methods available to screen for pairs using stat tests? Or are those usually too computationally expensive?
We are working on a way to make the notebooks clone-able into one's own research environment. In the meantime those interested in playing around with the notebook from the original post can download it here. After downloading upload it into your research account. If you do not yet have a research account, enter an algorithm into the contest to receive access.
good trader, The method provided in the notebook will screen a given list of securities for cointegration, the underlying condition necessary for pairs trading. The problem is not as much the computational complexity as it is the loss of statistical power. The more comparisons you do, the less weight you must put on significant p-values. This phenomenon is described here. To be statistically rigorous, you must apply a Bonferroni correction to p-values obtained from a pairwise cointegration script. The reason being that the more p-values you generate, the more likely you are to encounter significant p-values which are spurious and do not reflect actual cointegration behavior in the underlying securities. Since the number of comparisons done when looking for pairwise cointegration in n securities grows at a rate of O(n^2), even looking at 20 securities would render most statistical tests useless. A better approach is to come up with a small set of candidate securities using analysis of the underlying economic links. A small number of statistical tests can then be done to determine which, if any, pairs are cointegrated. Let me know if this is what you meant.
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I disagree somewhat about the problem with too many comparisons. The Bonferroni correction is appropriate when you are looking for truth. For example, if you have a questionnaire with 1,000 items and you give it to people with and without cancer, you'll find on average 50 items that correlate with cancer at the 5% level of statistical significance, even if nothing on the questionnaire is related to cancer. If you consider combinations of two or more items, you can generate as many correlates are you like.
But when designing automated trading strategies, coincidental relations don't hurt you much. They add random noise and trading costs to your results. Since few results are 100% meaningless, most relations have at least some small degree of persistence, it's not critical to filter your strategy down to rigorously validated ones. Profits matter, not truth. Bonferroni and similar metrics push you to the most statistically reliable relations, which are not generally the most economically useful ones.
If by "analysis of the underlying economic links" you mean starting with natural pairs like two similar companies in the same industry, I have not found that useful. Basically people notice the obvious stuff. If you mean thinking about less obvious relations, especially things that are invisible in the usual data people use, then I agree. Ideally you want a validatable economic story for the pair relation, which explains both why it exists and why it is not arbitraged away. Not only does that guard against data mining, but it means you can measure whether the effect continues to work (without that, the only way you know the strategy isn't working is when you lose money).
잘 하셨어요. I haven't read through your notebook line-by-line, but I can tell that it will be a great addition to the Quantopian example library. And following up with shared algos--good move.
You might have a look at the notebook I posted, quantopian/posts/analysis-of-minute-bar-trading-volumes-of-the-etfs-spy-and-sh. To visualize how a given pair goes in and out of cointegration, you could make a similar plot. Applying the statistical test 390 times per trading day over many years would require some patience, though.
Aaron Am I correct in reading your argument generally as follows?
- In the real world Bonferroni is too restrictive and the number of profitable pairs you lose via the correction outweighs the statistical certainty you gain.
I think we agree as to the final point you make. I think that many of the economic link analysis folks do are simplistic and ignore the potentially interesting relations that are more likely to contain non-arbitraged alpha.
Grant Thank you. We're actually planning to expand the example library to a full quant finance curriculum taught with notebooks and companion algorithms. We're going to have a series of summer lectures as we develop more topics, so keep an eye out for those. Your notebook is very cool and I do wonder how stable the cointegration scores are even for strongly cointegrated pairs. Unfortunately, I don't think I'll have time to look into that in the near future what with the production of our other curriculum notebooks. We are looking for guest contributors, however. If you have any notebooks you would like to be featured in our curriculum with full credit to the author(s), send them my way and I'll see if they would fit into our current content.
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In the real world Bonferroni is too restrictive and the number of profitable pairs you lose via the correction outweighs the statistical certainty you gain.
Not precisely. Yes, Bonferroni is too restrictive in the sense that it gives you too few pairs, but Bonferroni also directs you to the wrong pairs.
In the example of a questionnaire with 1,000 items given to cancer patients and non-cancer patients, it's likely that most of the items have no effect on cancer, or at least such weak and complex effects that it's not worth using them for medical advice. So if you want 5% significance, you test each item at the 0.005% level (that is you want 3.9 standard deviations, not just 1.6). You don't mind that, because any real effect strong enough to matter will likely show up with strong significance. If you didn't do Bonferroni, you'd end up with 50 recommendations even when none of the items mattered, and a lot of useless advice.
Incidentally, Bonferroni is a very conservative correction, and there are more sophisticated ones that allow more items.
But if you have 1,000 pairs to test, it's likely that many of them have some degree of cointegral predictability. Even if there is no predictability, including the extra pair only adds a little noise to your strategy, which is not terrible. Also you don't believe that any of them have predictability so strong that anyone would have noticed it and arbitraged it away. So it's reasonable to consider all the pairs with 5% significance or less, and filter them out using economic or other criteria unrelated to the data. Selecting only the strongest statistical relations is not wise.
You can set this up in a Bayesian framework if you like consistency and precision; or you can just use ad hoc rules of thumb.
Just for the il-pair-literated who want to learn. must there be a story behind the pair? Should there be a logical explanation? I played around with pairs and found for example that MorganStanley and Expedia work. but why? Or doesn't one want to know why.
must there be a story behind the pair?
This is actually a semantic question rather than a financial one. If you adopted a pure statistical approach with no consideration of the actual pairs, you would end up with hundreds or thousands of pairs, including some overlapping ones. Then we wouldn't call it a pairs-trading strategy but a long-short equity strategy.
The idea of pairs trading is you can get additional insight by considering specific reasons for the dependence between the stocks; and that insight can result in more accurate positioning, and also avoidance of big losses when the relation breaks.
Obvious relations, like two large-cap stocks in the same industry, tend not to be useful. That's confusing sometimes, because some of the famous early pairs trades involved such pairs, and they're still used for examples in most texts. But too many people are watching those spreads too closely to get the high Sharpe ratios you need for undiversified strategies like pairs trading. Leave those marginal Sharpes to the long-short equity people who have a lot more positions.
Also, when we talk about a reason for the pairs relation, we're talking about both a positive--why is it hard to imagine a world in which the values of these companies diverge from their historical proportions--and a negative--why do these stocks respond to different economic news? So for two near-identical companies the first question is easy, but the second is hard. For two seemingly unrelated companies like MS and EXPE it's the reverse. You might say something like, "In a good economy Morgan Stanley gets a lot of business and people travel a lot," but that's basically true of almost any two companies.
The classic pairs reason was two companies that responded to the same basic economic factors, say oil prices or interest rates or US dollar strength, but at different points in the supply chain, say crude oil prices versus gas station revenues. A single link is not good enough, virtually all companies respond to these factors. But you can find pairs that are matched on narrower factors, say fracking activity in the Northeast US or precipitation in central California, or that match direction on a number of broad factors. Or you can find two companies that are actually in similar businesses today, but that for historical reasons are listed in different sectors. Another common situation is two companies involved at different points of the lifecycle of durable assets; homebuilders and furniture stores with similar geography for example.
Anyway, when you have a reason, you have things to monitor to fine-tune your position; and to alert you if a big dislocation is a great trading opportunity or a sign than the historical relation has broken. If you don't have a reason, you'd better have a lot of diversification, meaning you can't afford the specific analysis work for each pair.
Wouldn't you admit though that if a pair has a story then that story is known and therefore unprofitable by the likes of slow to trade retail traders? And if one could mine the data and discover, through the data, stories that were unexpected that one could at least compete in the pairs trading space? I see your point on maintaining a large pool of pairs if the stories that connect the participants are weak or unexplored, but still, if we underlings wish to participate why wouldn't we use such a technique? Or do you maintain that retail traders can capture and profit from anomalous pair spreads of well known couples?
Wouldn't you admit though that if a pair has a story then that story is known and therefore unprofitable by the likes of slow to trade retail traders?
No, I wouldn't agree with that view. Pairs trading tends to be low capacity, especially in lower-cap stocks, and takes a lot of work. It's not attractive for asset managers because the investment amounts and risk characteristics are erratic. It's mostly pursued by individual full-time professional traders, who might follow a dozen pairs in addition to a few dozen other strategies, and semi-pro traders who are willing to take what the market gives them and stay in cash when none of their strategies are attractive. There are more good pairs than there are competent traders chasing them.
In principle, you could find good pairs using a clever automated filter, or by reading and thinking. My general feeling is the first is harder, and if you're going to do it, you'll want to do it to identify large numbers of pretty good pairs rather than two or three great pairs. In that case, I'd say just switch to long-short equity and forget pairs. The good thing about reading and thinking is most good quants are lazy, and would rather let the computer do the work. So you're competing with non-quants, some of whom are pretty good at reading and thinking, but are at a huge disadvantage to someone with a computer who knows a little math.
I don't want to come across as dogmatic, anyone who does what other people tell them is not likely to find great success in any sort of trading. If you think you can design an algorithm to identify good pairs, there's no harm in trying. It just doesn't strike me as the most promising approach.
. takes a lot of work.
네. The easy pairs trade money was made long ago. Lucrative stories in lower-cap stocks though exposes a pair to the aberrations of smaller company volatility no? "Whoops, that solar stock just lost its major contract. Or, wow, that driller just got a windfall state contract." And then the story gets rewritten, or thee or four pages get torn out. One might catch such preludes to story changes if one only watches a dozen or so stories. But here, where we're looking to avoid story watching -- going fully automated, we would get nailed by such narrative breakdowns in just a few pair relationships.
When you say switch to long/short equities you would seem to advocate abandoning the statistical search for obscure (perhaps whimsical) stories in lieu of broader mean reversion -- is this true? But, if one has the tools, why not create dozens and dozens of strange storied pair trades. Sure the stories may not actually exist. But then again, maybe you discover 10 or 20 that are unique. And through a process of eliminating the poorly paired partners, you end up with a manageable set that are capable of dancing with the stars? This site is nothing if not a massive experiment in data mining no?
Again, I'm not trying to law down laws here, but the two straightforward approaches are (a) try to find a few pairs you can understand or (b) forget about pairs and just try to build a large portfolio of longs and shorts without worrying about pairing up stocks or doing unautomated research. In other words (a) niche clever research or (b) massive data mining.
Trying to split the difference by finding dozens of pairs but not doing the tailored research necessary to understand each one seems suboptimal.
try to find a few pairs you can understand.
If I'm reading things correctly, by "understand" you mean that there should be some underlying intuitive story behind the relationship, I suppose so that there is less risk that the relationship will suddenly disappear? Are you talking about a kind of narrative, "The reason we think this is happening, but can't really explain with a model, is. & quot; or an explanatory quantitative model that provides the story behind the relationship? Say I find a pairs trade based on the idea that when consumers buy lots of eggs, bacon sales drop off, and vice versa. I could make up a story that people can only eat so much for breakfast, and leave it at that. I have a warm, fuzzy feeling, and if I'm a professional trader, hopefully my management will feel warm and fuzzy, too. But is the risk really any different without the story? Unless I actually find a relevant study on breakfast eating, or conduct one myself, then I could just be deluded. And if the underlying cause can't be coded into a set of rules, then it is not really automated quantitative trading, right? As a Quantopian user who doesn't do this sort of thing for a living, I need to get an algo in the Quantopian hedge fund, let it run, and collect a check. No time for doing lots of offline analyses.
There are more good pairs than there are competent traders chasing them.
sounds like the land of milk and honey for us inhabitants of Quantopia. This would say that the Quantopian team should think about churning out candidate pairs for their 35,000+ users to examine like a bunch of ants, trying to come up with stories for a subset of them ("I'll take XYZ & PDQ, do some research, and see if I can find a 'story' to support the relationship.").
I'm just trying to sort out if any of this can be reduced to practice for Joe Schmo Quantopian user, or if it is a hopeless endeavor. Is there a path for Quantopian to get hundreds of lucrative, scalable pairs trading algos for their $10B hedge fund (keep in mind that by my estimation, they need several thousand distinct algos in the fund)? Or is this all a bunch of blah, blah, blah?
I've tried the automated searching of pairs/baskets, using the public knowledge techniques, and though I haven't gone through them all with my tick-level back-tester, the few that I did examine personally were largely worthless; the supposed spread mean-reversion that my grid search turned up was just spurious or due to bid-ask bounce.
However, I do know for a fact that people run decently profitable automated pairs trading portfolios. I take that to mean that it is possible, but the way that I approached it was naive. Perhaps the legwork method is the way to go, coming up with theses about drivers and then looking for portfolios that would express the theses, with the actual hedge ratio construction done "rigorously" using Kalman filters or whatever.
My take is that chatting about pairs trading is wonderful, but there should be a focus on reducing it to practice, with some sort of approachable workflow, so that a Quantopian user can sit down in his pajamas with a cup of coffee on a rainy day and actually come up with a halfway decent algo that would have a shot at getting into the crowd-sourced Q fund. For example, we have:
. try to find a few pairs you can understand.
Perhaps the legwork method is the way to go, coming up with theses about drivers.
O. K. So what's the workflow for your typical Q user? Keep in mind, this needs to be scalable. it won't do Q any good if only users with an advanced degree and 20 years of industry experience can be successful. If the answer is, "Well, there is no workflow. you just need to know" then pairs trading won't be approachable on Q. We have Aaron's "reading and thinking" recommendation above, but read what?
Also, I'd seen somewhere that there are techniques for synthesizing trading pairs, from baskets of securities. Does this work? Or does one effectively end up with the long-short equity portfolio referred to by Aaron Brown above?
The kind of warm-and-fuzzy story you mention is worthless for investing, although as you say it can reassure investors and regulators. What you're looking for is covariates to refine your strategy and, most important, warn you when it's not going to work. The quant trap is that when your relation breaks it simply looks more attractive to your model, and you spiral to doom.
The eggs-and-bacon story is actually the reverse of what you want. That says there is a fixed total consumption, so the total amount consumed of both products is fixed, meaning they are negatively cointegrated. If they were positively correlated, say because investors bid up or down all breakfast foods as a group, you would do anti-pairs trading. You're looking for things that have to be in some kind of long-term balance, but move is opposite directions in the short-term. A warm-and-fuzzy story might be residential construction and furniture sales, in the short run if people are saving for down payments they're not buying furniture, and newly house poor families are making due with old furniture and underfurnishing. But in the long run, houses will get furnished. This would never be a pairs trading story because it's relating entire sectors. To exploit this, you'd build a model tracing the full life cycle, and likely involving other factors like interest rates and family demographics and migration patterns, and trade large numbers of stocks.
To keep this practical, here is a Pairs Trading for Dummies recipe (I mean that respectfully, I'm a big fan for For Dummies books).
Run some kind of statistical screen to identify promising pairs trading targets. Don't look for extreme statistical significance, just some moderate level to screen out the noise like 5% or 1%. It can help to limit one member of each pair to companies or regions you know something about.
Clearly this is for someone who has quant skills, but also general research skills and business judgment.
Run some kind of statistical screen to identify promising pairs trading targets. Don't look for extreme statistical significance, just some moderate level to screen out the noise like 5% or 1%. It can help to limit one member of each pair to companies or regions you know something about.
it sounds like it could be productive for Quantopian to open-source some efficient tools for the screening (and maybe up their game in terms of computing resources). Let's say I'm an expert on company XYZ and maybe I could narrow down my field of candidate securities for comparison to NASDAQ-listed stocks, of which there are about 3,000. So, it is an O(N) computing problem, not O(N^2) as Delaney mentions above for the general screening problem. But, I'd like to compute the statistics on a rolling basis, every trading minute over 2 years. I'd have:
(3000 comparisons/minute)(390 minutes/day)(252 days/year)(2 years) = 589,680,000 comparisons.
Is something like this at all feasible on the Quantopian research platform? If not, how would I scale it back to something that would actually run in a reasonable amount of time (a few days at most) but still provide useful results?
I'm playing around with the algorithm by Ernie Chan that you posted.
Surprisingly, it fails entirely when I swap the pair, see the attached backtest (I've only changed the order).
Also, how to treat the negative hedge (beta from OLS). With the current implementation we go long (short) on both positions when the sign of the hedge is the same as the sign of the z-score, which you don't expect from pair trading. What economic reason can lead to such cointegrations?
Not sure exactly why it's failing when you swap the order. Seems like the math may not be robust to an 'upside-down' pair. The hedge ratio comes from the formal definition of cointegration, which is that for some b and u_t = y_t - b * x_t, u_t is stationary (the mean stays the same). Therefore we try to estimate the b parameter in each trade so that we can correctly produce a stationary drift between the two securities. It can be the case that the two are negatively cointegrated, whether there's a strong economic reason for this I'm not sure. You might try putting in place restrictions to not trade when you have double long or double short positions, or employing a better estimation method for b (more data points for example).
All of the issues you bring up are very sophisticated improvements, and making these improvements to the algorithm could result in something very good. I don't have cut and dried solutions for you, as you are now dancing around the edge of what is known about algorithmic trading. A lot of it comes down to rigorously testing different signal processing methods to see which yield the best out of sample performance. Also, like you said it's important to let the economic reasoning drive the creation of your model.
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Thank you for your quick reply.
This is actually a very valuable response, as I was afraid I might have missed something obvious.
The material on this website is provided for informational purposes only and does not constitute an offer to sell, a solicitation to buy, or a recommendation or endorsement for any security or strategy, nor does it constitute an offer to provide investment advisory services by Quantopian. In addition, the material offers no opinion with respect to the suitability of any security or specific investment. No information contained herein should be regarded as a suggestion to engage in or refrain from any investment-related course of action as none of Quantopian nor any of its affiliates is undertaking to provide investment advice, act as an adviser to any plan or entity subject to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended, individual retirement account or individual retirement annuity, or give advice in a fiduciary capacity with respect to the materials presented herein. If you are an individual retirement or other investor, contact your financial advisor or other fiduciary unrelated to Quantopian about whether any given investment idea, strategy, product or service described herein may be appropriate for your circumstances. All investments involve risk, including loss of principal. Quantopian makes no guarantees as to the accuracy or completeness of the views expressed in the website. The views are subject to change, and may have become unreliable for various reasons, including changes in market conditions or economic circumstances.
Here is a temp website which has similarity of movement information, which is about the same idea as pairs. StockA is the stock you are comparing to, row is how this pair ranks to all pairs, (its row count). It only contains information for the top 5000 or so pairs.
The data is pulled from the period of Aug 2014 to Feb 2015 and is an average of each day.
(Change IYR to symbol wanted)
The idea behind the algorithm is not actually for pairs trading, but is for similarity of how a pair moves. I will leave this test site up for a few weeks.
Thanks Delaney. It's a great starting step for pair trading technique.
I am working on the missing piece of this strategy which is how to use Quantopian Research environment to find statistical cointegration stock/ETF pairs from entire universe or from the same sectors. After I construct good pairs, then I can use the Notebook you provided for further analysis and backtest.
Does anyone have any suggestion for me?
I have a question for those trading pairs.
How do you deal with the large processing requirements?
I coded some tests for co-integration and results per combination take roughly 1 second.
I can get this down with parallel processing and by storing data locally but a universe of 2000 stocks will still have 4000000 potential combinations.
Perhaps pointing out the obvious, but .
A pre-screening tool, or pre-screening done for you for a fee .
When I was researching this sort of thing a couple of years ago, the baskets of 3 and 4 of only a few hundred ETFs took months on my MacBook. And they were all mostly garbage, though I never actually went through them all. I probably should.
If I remember correctly, that was 1.6T combinations, or something like that.
The formula is R to the Sterling S, divided by S!
so, for 4000 stocks, it would be.
(4000 x3999)/2! or, about 8 million pairs made from the 4000 typical stocks. for 3 stocks considered together, there would be 4000 x 3999 x 3998 /3!
You can prune the possible tree pretty easily though. I believe most stocks behave as if they really were ETFs (at the market neutral way of looking at it only) and can be represented by a group of other stocks, that move with their same fundamentals. You only have to know what sectors they move with, and then check for pairs against this.
So, for example, with HLF, it moves with consumer, several currencies, emerging markets, and a few others. It is hard to separate out exactly as emerging markets also move with currency, so which is which becomes the question.
For two typical tech stocks that appear to be very similar, it may well be the case that their main difference is which currencies they move with. So, for most of the time, they may appear co-integrated, but then, when there is a difference in currencies that affects one a lot, and not so much the other, they then move apart.
I was working on an algorithm to determine the underlying components, (so to speak) that collectively make each stock behave with the same logic as if it was a multi-sector ETF. (where the underlying stocks are a mystery to be solved) I have most of it done, and I believe I have enough done to prove it does work this way, but I lost my real time quote stream a few months ago, and so stopped working on it.
since my algorithm would need to consider up to 15 underlying components to solve this problem, it would be 4000 x 3999 x3998 . 3985/15! So, I have to trim it. The link I posted a few messages above shows some of the results of this work, where I first determine the possible stocks to consider, for each symbol.
It is my belief that the market is essentially swamped out with pairs trading, and this is why it works so mathematically perfect for each stock to behave as if it is an ETF.
There is certainly a high computational cost to looking at all possible pairs. However, there is a tradeoff to this approach, as you put yourself at a high risk for multiple comparisons bias. Please see earlier in this thread for a fairly complete discussion of this issue. Regardless of which method you use to select pairs, you'll want to do some additional validation using the notebook and then use the algorithms in this thread to try backtesting a strategy.
The material on this website is provided for informational purposes only and does not constitute an offer to sell, a solicitation to buy, or a recommendation or endorsement for any security or strategy, nor does it constitute an offer to provide investment advisory services by Quantopian. In addition, the material offers no opinion with respect to the suitability of any security or specific investment. No information contained herein should be regarded as a suggestion to engage in or refrain from any investment-related course of action as none of Quantopian nor any of its affiliates is undertaking to provide investment advice, act as an adviser to any plan or entity subject to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended, individual retirement account or individual retirement annuity, or give advice in a fiduciary capacity with respect to the materials presented herein. If you are an individual retirement or other investor, contact your financial advisor or other fiduciary unrelated to Quantopian about whether any given investment idea, strategy, product or service described herein may be appropriate for your circumstances. All investments involve risk, including loss of principal. Quantopian makes no guarantees as to the accuracy or completeness of the views expressed in the website. The views are subject to change, and may have become unreliable for various reasons, including changes in market conditions or economic circumstances.
Indeed, Aaron Brown's advice is gold.
What is "multiple comparisons bias"? I'm lazy and don't feel like sifting through this rather extensive discussion thread.
I find it hard to believe that pairs trading would work as a scalable hedge fund strategy (be able to pour $10's of millions into a single pair). Is there any evidence? In other words, why is Quantopian promoting this?
This is one of the best threads on the site.
It scales; you can trade hundreds of pairs.
Multiple comparisons is a core problem in all of statistics, right up there with overfitting. The general idea is that if you run 100 statistical tests on random data, you should still expect to get 5 below a 5% cutoff and 1 below a 1% cutoff based on random chance. This is true when testing various iterations of a model, or many pairs. Because the number of pairs is O(n^2) you should expect to get a lot of spurious p-values when looking for pairs. A naive strategy of just looping through pairs won't work, you need to be a bit more sophisticated.
And yes you trade many pairs with low exposure to each. That said, I think that long-short equity strategies may be a better first bet to get into the fund at this point, just based on robustness and capacity.
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There is more electricity used in the state of New Jersey doing calculations on the market than there is electricity used in that state for manufacturing. Pairs strategy likely accounts for at least 50% of this usage as even HFT likely often uses some version of deviation from the mean. It is my opinion that the market is so saturated with pairs trading that given the price of any ten tickers that had no big news, one could deduce the price of the rest of the market and be within 0.7% of the actual price, 90% of the time for the top traded 4000 stocks. (and it could probably be done with less than ten tickers. ) So, for a 30 dollar stock, the margin of error would be about a quarter. This is how precisely, compared to each other, I think they move. Until there is news.
It sounds like a corollary to the reciprocal of the law of large numbers; given enough samples you will always find something to fit.
I would reintroduce the concept I proposed in an article in S&C last spring ; the directed acyclic graph or DAG. Using thousands of correlated or cointegrated pairs I built groups from them. Those groups were essentially social graphs of securities. You can search here for DAG, but briefly, you can use the concept of pair trading, that is, fade and favor the divergences, but with a correlated group. And such a group is assembled, dynamically, from a list of pairs that are "friends of friends". It's a pairs strategy, essentially, but with lower risk and less work managing hundreds of separate strategies.
That said, I think that long-short equity strategies may be a better first bet to get into the fund at this point, just based on robustness and capacity.
Have people been coming up with good ones? If so, what proportion are using the new data sets? If not, why not, do you think that is?
I haven't been focusing on them at all, mostly because there's a problem of opportunity cost; if I spend all my time looking for equity long-short algos, not only is there a chance I don't find anything, but if I do, there's still a chance that Quantopian doesn't select it, and since I cannot trade them myself, that time is wasted (unless I pitch it to other funds I suppose). If I look for algos that I personally can trade, and I find some, then I trade them.
I realize there's an unfortunate schism wherein I am using your platform but not contributing to your business model, so if you have any ideas how I can help without wasting my time writing algos that only work high account levels, please let me know. Pairs trading/statistical arbitrage might be one solution, but I've found them very difficult to implement; anything that looks promising in Quantopian fails the backtest when using dividend-adjusted bid-ask tick data, so I might shift my focus back to building my own lower latency infrastructure for a while.
I would reintroduce the concept I proposed in an article in S&C last spring ; the directed acyclic graph or DAG. Using thousands of correlated or cointegrated pairs I built groups from them.
Cool. Yeah, pretty similar. The DAG though was used specifically to find the networked graph. Those trees might embody the same thing, not sure. But I'd guess the idea is approximate.
Why would anyone want to pairs trade when trading a Minimum Spanning Tree or correlated network graph of stocks is so much safer and easier? I've built dozens of pairs strategies and the directionality of the pair always broke the model. And all pairs I ever tested all went directional at some point -- beyond the account's ability to Martingale down.
Have people been coming up with good ones? If so, what proportion are using the new data sets? If not, why not, do you think that is?
I can't release any specific data on this. I can say that there's a lag between when we update product features/try to educate people about algorithm writing techniques (larger universe size, shorting), and when new strategies start appearing. We'd love more large universe strategies right now and I'm trying to figure out ways to make it easier for folks to develop large universe long-short strategies using pipeline.
I haven't been focusing on them at all, mostly because there's a problem of opportunity cost; if I spend all my time looking for equity long-short algos, not only is there a chance I don't find anything, but if I do, there's still a chance that Quantopian doesn't select it, and since I cannot trade them myself, that time is wasted (unless I pitch it to other funds I suppose). If I look for algos that I personally can trade, and I find some, then I trade them.
I realize there's an unfortunate schism wherein I am using your platform but not contributing to your business model, so if you have any ideas how I can help without wasting my time writing algos that only work high account levels, please let me know. Pairs trading/statistical arbitrage might be one solution, but I've found them very difficult to implement; anything that looks promising in Quantopian fails the backtest when using dividend-adjusted bid-ask tick data, so I might shift my focus back to building my own lower latency infrastructure for a while.
Totally reasonable. We don't release our product with the expectation that everybody will use it to develop strategies for the fund, we also want to support your use case of personal trading. We also understand there's a conflict between pushing people to write high capacity market neutral long-short strategies, when those will never work on their own money. What I'm trying to figure out is ways to make the workflow of producing and evaluating factors easier, because once you have a factor-based ranking system, it's pretty easy to slot that into an existing long-short algorithm using pipeline. I'm working on sharing a pipeline algorithm with the community and attaching it to the lectures page in an effort to get more cloning and tweaking going on.
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I share Simon's sentiment. I've continued to participate in the contests, but the idea of spending tens (hundreds?) of hours trying to come up with an uber algo that will compete with the big dogs sounds like a lot of work, with a very uncertain pay-off (it's not even clear that you are still working on the hedge fund. any substantive news?). The pipeline thingy has a bit of a learning curve, so I haven't taken that on yet (the fact that lots of obscure modules need to be imported is a red flag). That said, if there were good working examples that could be tweaked, I might give it a go.
What I'm trying to figure out is ways to make the workflow of producing and evaluating factors easier, because once you have a factor-based ranking system, it's pretty easy to slot that into an existing long-short algorithm using pipeline.
Why don't you get all of the Q eggheads together for 1 week and see if you can come up with a long-short algo that would be Q hedge-fundable, and publish it (and better yet, actually fund it). Not only would this provide an existence proof, but you should also gain some insight into the workflow and the person-hours to accomplish the task.
Here is a pipeline algorithm that I just published as the goto example of a long-short equity strategy. I'm sure it will go through many improvements as the public eye turns to it, but it should at least be a start. It's tricky because we do want to publish algorithms that are 95% of the way done, so that users can take the last 5% and improve the strategies in many different uncorrelated ways. With long-short equity most of the work is in choosing good factors and factor ranking techniques. Unfortunately those are the type of signals that will disappear when shared publicly, but the actual machinery to trade within the algorithm should stay pretty consistent. If you're maybe looking to learn pipeline a bit, I would recommend going through Lectures 17 and 18, then looking at the algorithm.
I can say for certain we are working on the hedge fund. Even if you have strategies that aren't consistently winning the contest, we may be interested in an algorithm that can consistently do ok. Ultimately, my job as the one overseeing the lectures is to keep trying to make it easier so people don't have to spend as much time working on algorithms that may never pay off for them, and so we get more algorithms that do pay off in the long run.
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I start to implement pair trading backtesting in research environment instead of IDE. The main reason is to automatic run multiple pairs performance analysis before I jump into IDE for full backtest. Another reason for this work is to do further analysis for returns from many pairs.
I am wondering where I can find the example of backtesting in research environment to start with. Any comment is very appreciated.
In your research environment there should be a 'Tutorials and Documentation' folder. Inside the folder should be a notebook with the title 'Tutorial (Advanced) - Backtesting with Zipline'. Make a copy of that and let me know if that's enough to get you started.
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May 28 algo falls below benchmark if extended to date and -43% PvR with default slippage and commissions, tanking thru 2015.
Hope it can be rescued b/c it shows good potential.
The example strategies cheat and run on the same timeframe over which we did research and found the securities to be cointegrated. In a real strategy you'd want to find pairs that were cointegrated into the future and not just historically cointegrated. The template should stay largely the same, so it's an issue of swapping in new securities that you have statistical evidence will stay cointegrated.
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Could you post a tutorial on calibrating an Ornstein Uhlenbeck process for mean reverting series residuals?
We've added a lecture on this to our queue. No idea when we might currently get to it, but it's on there.
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Ages ago I posted, perhaps as anonymole, that a "pair" needn't be made of only two securities. In fact, the whole "we only allow low beta strats" mantra is pretty much an argument that all strategies should be a variation of a pairs strat. That is, over all, a market neutral position is best.
Taking this further however, and applying a more formal model to the pairs strategy (that the security set have a "story" attached to it) I wonder if the two halves of the pair would do better as independent baskets of securities. That if one approached a pairs strategy with the mind to match up two behaviorally opposed baskets of securities that instead of trying to search all pair combinations looking for all the super-great-marvelous attributes a pair should have, that instead, one determine the two sides of the pair coin and fill each side with the most appropriately identified securities -- for each side.
A simplistic model might be described thusly:
Equities which cycle up in the spring/summer and down in the fall/winter would be bundled together and set against equities which cycle oppositely (down in the summer, up in the winter).
No doubt there are more interesting or undiscovered cycles that exist. My point is that rather than identify securities that yin and yang, one discover technical, or macro, or fundamental classifications which zig when the other zags. Then find securities which fit each of those baskets of behavior.
This is a very interesting idea and definitely something that professional quants do. At the core we just want two assets on either side of a pair, and a portfolio of assets will do just as well as a single equity. There are probably pros and cons of each method, but the idea of using a basket of things rather than a single thing can greatly reduce your position concentration risk and lead to a better algorithm. I'd say it's worth research. You'd still likely want a few different pairs of baskets as each would smooth out the return curve of the other and produce a lower volatility algorithm.
The material on this website is provided for informational purposes only and does not constitute an offer to sell, a solicitation to buy, or a recommendation or endorsement for any security or strategy, nor does it constitute an offer to provide investment advisory services by Quantopian. In addition, the material offers no opinion with respect to the suitability of any security or specific investment. No information contained herein should be regarded as a suggestion to engage in or refrain from any investment-related course of action as none of Quantopian nor any of its affiliates is undertaking to provide investment advice, act as an adviser to any plan or entity subject to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended, individual retirement account or individual retirement annuity, or give advice in a fiduciary capacity with respect to the materials presented herein. If you are an individual retirement or other investor, contact your financial advisor or other fiduciary unrelated to Quantopian about whether any given investment idea, strategy, product or service described herein may be appropriate for your circumstances. All investments involve risk, including loss of principal. Quantopian makes no guarantees as to the accuracy or completeness of the views expressed in the website. The views are subject to change, and may have become unreliable for various reasons, including changes in market conditions or economic circumstances.
I have to run an errand, so I only have five minutes, but hopefully I can be clear in that time.
To demonstrate the chops of an AI system, I created an algorithm that can represent the small changes in stocks price, as the sum of a set of ETFs. For example, with MSFT one might have XLK, XLY, FXE, FXI, and some others.
I can show that the typical price movements during a day can be represented in this way. However, when there is specific news, then it is no longer true, if the news is strong.
What I believe this shows is that instead of things "returning to the mean" they are in fact not moving arbitrarily and so, if they return to the mean, it is because one of the underlying components in fact moved. (Of all the underlying components, usually only one or two have news, and the rest are balancing each other out, once the price has adjusted.)
How might one design a trading platform for this as even if you do know it is the sum of other waveforms that are causing one waveform, one still doesn't know what causes them to move until after the fact.
(the reduction in influence is 1/1.6 when looking at the components, so after a couple of feedback loops, the influence is not measurable. Thanks, and sorry for the hurried note,
Have you read Algorithmic Trading written by Ernie Chan? For sure you read it, I have a question: in fact I am not good in programming and working with Matlab, I am really interested in Currency cross rate part of the book and I want to implement the positions in live trading but I don't know how to do that in fact I can't understand what the numbers as positions mean! If somebody can guide me I'm really appreciated.
Not entirely sure I'm understanding your thesis but it seems that you've created an expression that models the returns of a specific stock from it's sector exposures. This is actually a common risk modeling tactic, check out my notebook here. To build a trading strategy off of this I would take your hypothesis about changing news and use that to alter the coefficients of your model. A cool place to start would be to check out the lectures on factor modeling and then maybe look at some news/sentiment data sets to see if you can find any anomalies.
The material on this website is provided for informational purposes only and does not constitute an offer to sell, a solicitation to buy, or a recommendation or endorsement for any security or strategy, nor does it constitute an offer to provide investment advisory services by Quantopian. In addition, the material offers no opinion with respect to the suitability of any security or specific investment. No information contained herein should be regarded as a suggestion to engage in or refrain from any investment-related course of action as none of Quantopian nor any of its affiliates is undertaking to provide investment advice, act as an adviser to any plan or entity subject to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended, individual retirement account or individual retirement annuity, or give advice in a fiduciary capacity with respect to the materials presented herein. If you are an individual retirement or other investor, contact your financial advisor or other fiduciary unrelated to Quantopian about whether any given investment idea, strategy, product or service described herein may be appropriate for your circumstances. All investments involve risk, including loss of principal. Quantopian makes no guarantees as to the accuracy or completeness of the views expressed in the website. The views are subject to change, and may have become unreliable for various reasons, including changes in market conditions or economic circumstances.
That is close. It models the returns to within a few cents usually, at any moment in time, depending on the stock and its volatility as a sum of its sectors. (except when it has specific news.) What I envision behind it is a large set of funds using NLP to invest by sector based on news. Because they are so large, then they tend to swamp out the market during normal times.
I can also show that stock prices changes are directly proportional to the sum of the underlying sectors information, for most time periods. For example, the price changes for three months show this and also for three weeks, which is a bit chaos like, as it would seem they wouldnt be so perfectly in tune. Anyway, with this I can sort stocks by their overall market efficiency (the more efficient you are, the more you sync with the relationship stated above).
I also believe that there are huge funds that are interested in doing nothing more than treading water (as one possible explanation) and they move their money around the world, just trying to stay even, and so the result is that at any given time, the sum of everything stays near zero. (when one thing goes up somewhere, something else somewhere else goes down.)
These relationships also break down during periods of very high volatility such as fall 2015.
There are other things I am able to quantify, but again have no idea how to use. When information about a specific stock or sector hits the market, it is my observation that the more objective the information, the faster the market responds, and the more subjective it is, the slower the market responds.
For example, when Ackman says that HLF is a pyramid scheme, then it can sometimes be hours, and sometimes even days before that news is no longer affecting the price of the stock, but when an analyst upgrades or downgrades a stock, that is more objective and the entire price adjustment is over in fifteen minutes. (If you subtract out market movements then an analysts announcement looks like a log curve, with most of the action in the beginning and a bit of a ringing at the last.)
Again, this all happens too fast to be of use, and it is after the fact that I can say, "That was subjective."
I don't think I am able to alter the coefficients as you suggest. I am using a hard coded take on a system of recursive polynomials for my modeling, so there are billions of coefficients.
Hi, I have a quick and possibly dumb question. Why did you use the ratio instead of the difference between S1 and S2 in the Quantopain pairs trading lecture? In the co-integration lecture, you use the difference instead. In other sources, they use the difference as well.
There's an updated notebook, algorithm, and video available on the lecture series page.
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And as a response to pandasaurus' question, which I unfortunately just saw, we have removed the ratio as it was a typo in the lecture.
The material on this website is provided for informational purposes only and does not constitute an offer to sell, a solicitation to buy, or a recommendation or endorsement for any security or strategy, nor does it constitute an offer to provide investment advisory services by Quantopian. In addition, the material offers no opinion with respect to the suitability of any security or specific investment. No information contained herein should be regarded as a suggestion to engage in or refrain from any investment-related course of action as none of Quantopian nor any of its affiliates is undertaking to provide investment advice, act as an adviser to any plan or entity subject to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended, individual retirement account or individual retirement annuity, or give advice in a fiduciary capacity with respect to the materials presented herein. If you are an individual retirement or other investor, contact your financial advisor or other fiduciary unrelated to Quantopian about whether any given investment idea, strategy, product or service described herein may be appropriate for your circumstances. All investments involve risk, including loss of principal. Quantopian makes no guarantees as to the accuracy or completeness of the views expressed in the website. The views are subject to change, and may have become unreliable for various reasons, including changes in market conditions or economic circumstances.
Greetings Quantopian Community,
I was at the NYC Event on Pairs Trading, and the current example algorithm is deprecated, such that one cannot deploy it in live trading. With this fix, users can now deploy the algorithm in live trading. The fix is hosted as a pull request on github--thanks.
매우 감사합니다. Could you please submit your PR to the following repo? It's where we store lectures and examples. Doesn't quite fit in the current form of zipline.
The material on this website is provided for informational purposes only and does not constitute an offer to sell, a solicitation to buy, or a recommendation or endorsement for any security or strategy, nor does it constitute an offer to provide investment advisory services by Quantopian. In addition, the material offers no opinion with respect to the suitability of any security or specific investment. No information contained herein should be regarded as a suggestion to engage in or refrain from any investment-related course of action as none of Quantopian nor any of its affiliates is undertaking to provide investment advice, act as an adviser to any plan or entity subject to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended, individual retirement account or individual retirement annuity, or give advice in a fiduciary capacity with respect to the materials presented herein. If you are an individual retirement or other investor, contact your financial advisor or other fiduciary unrelated to Quantopian about whether any given investment idea, strategy, product or service described herein may be appropriate for your circumstances. All investments involve risk, including loss of principal. Quantopian makes no guarantees as to the accuracy or completeness of the views expressed in the website. The views are subject to change, and may have become unreliable for various reasons, including changes in market conditions or economic circumstances.
Thanks, Delaney. I submitted the PR to the specified branch.
감사! Delaney. I am finishing my graduation thesis these days, Your work may help me a lot.
That's great to hear, Dzi. Hope it goes well!
The material on this website is provided for informational purposes only and does not constitute an offer to sell, a solicitation to buy, or a recommendation or endorsement for any security or strategy, nor does it constitute an offer to provide investment advisory services by Quantopian. In addition, the material offers no opinion with respect to the suitability of any security or specific investment. No information contained herein should be regarded as a suggestion to engage in or refrain from any investment-related course of action as none of Quantopian nor any of its affiliates is undertaking to provide investment advice, act as an adviser to any plan or entity subject to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended, individual retirement account or individual retirement annuity, or give advice in a fiduciary capacity with respect to the materials presented herein. If you are an individual retirement or other investor, contact your financial advisor or other fiduciary unrelated to Quantopian about whether any given investment idea, strategy, product or service described herein may be appropriate for your circumstances. All investments involve risk, including loss of principal. Quantopian makes no guarantees as to the accuracy or completeness of the views expressed in the website. The views are subject to change, and may have become unreliable for various reasons, including changes in market conditions or economic circumstances.
I have question in regards to high frequency pairs trading using bid/ask price. One thing that I noticed is during an entry signal if I'm supposed to go long in one and short the other, the Long position that I enter would be using the ask price and this ask price normally is higher than the bid price, so when my exit signals to exit, my bid price that I close my position at will often cause me to loose than make money. What are some of the ways to prevent this from happening or what are some strategies that goes hand in hand with trading high frequently with pairs strategy. Further, how are limit orders used with the bid/ask price.
If you need to make the spread in order for the strategy to be profitable, then you are squarely competing with high-frequency market makers, and it's a whole different ball game. You are unlikely to win. If you have control over the specific order types you send, you could attempt to use mid-point pegs or something, but as soon as you admit any sort of limit orders where execution is not immediate, you now need to be concerned about being exposed unhedged, which is something that you'll need to backtest. (not easy either). What some people do is try and rest or peg an order for the less liquid leg, and attempt to save some of the cost of the wider spread (though again, these days, you'll probably just get adversely selected for no net gain), and then as soon as that fills, you aggressively execute the hedge leg across the narrower spread.
How does one use both bid and ask z score in high frequency trading? For simplicity, I can understand using z score, but when it comes to using both bid and ask price z score, I have trouble picturing how it is used.
Simon's right, mid-frequency strategies generally should be fairly robust to bid-ask spreads. If they're not the edge is probably too small to be consistently profitable. For high frequency trading you do have to consider the bid and ask in many different ways, as your trading will be very sensitive to movements in both. How exactly you use the data would depend on your model.
The material on this website is provided for informational purposes only and does not constitute an offer to sell, a solicitation to buy, or a recommendation or endorsement for any security or strategy, nor does it constitute an offer to provide investment advisory services by Quantopian. In addition, the material offers no opinion with respect to the suitability of any security or specific investment. No information contained herein should be regarded as a suggestion to engage in or refrain from any investment-related course of action as none of Quantopian nor any of its affiliates is undertaking to provide investment advice, act as an adviser to any plan or entity subject to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended, individual retirement account or individual retirement annuity, or give advice in a fiduciary capacity with respect to the materials presented herein. If you are an individual retirement or other investor, contact your financial advisor or other fiduciary unrelated to Quantopian about whether any given investment idea, strategy, product or service described herein may be appropriate for your circumstances. All investments involve risk, including loss of principal. Quantopian makes no guarantees as to the accuracy or completeness of the views expressed in the website. The views are subject to change, and may have become unreliable for various reasons, including changes in market conditions or economic circumstances.
You can imagine that the spread is a synthetic asset. For instance, X = 1L -1S so a single unit of X is long one unit of L and short one unit of S. If you need to buy one unit of X immediately, you will buy at the ask of L and sell at the bid of S. If you need to sell one unit of X, you will sell at the bid of L and buy at the ask of S.
You can then easily calculate the bid and ask for X, you have just two "z-scores" to deal with. Then, if you like, you can delay buying until the X_ask_zscore < threshold, and delay selling until the X_bid_zscore > exit_threshold.
희망이 도움이됩니다.
I had a chance to see this notebook before and I would recommend it to everyone here. Lots of amazing info can be found inside.
The material on this website is provided for informational purposes only and does not constitute an offer to sell, a solicitation to buy, or a recommendation or endorsement for any security or strategy, nor does it constitute an offer to provide investment advisory services by Quantopian. In addition, the material offers no opinion with respect to the suitability of any security or specific investment. No information contained herein should be regarded as a suggestion to engage in or refrain from any investment-related course of action as none of Quantopian nor any of its affiliates is undertaking to provide investment advice, act as an adviser to any plan or entity subject to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended, individual retirement account or individual retirement annuity, or give advice in a fiduciary capacity with respect to the materials presented herein. If you are an individual retirement or other investor, contact your financial advisor or other fiduciary unrelated to Quantopian about whether any given investment idea, strategy, product or service described herein may be appropriate for your circumstances. All investments involve risk, including loss of principal. Quantopian makes no guarantees as to the accuracy or completeness of the views expressed in the website. The views are subject to change, and may have become unreliable for various reasons, including changes in market conditions or economic circumstances.
Hey Simon. thanks for that last post. I've been thinking through the logic behind that, but I do have some questions. Hope you don't mind explaining or expanding on it a little. 1) If I understood you correctly you mean X being the spread between a pair? in other words one unit of X immediately to be traded immediately, I would think that you will buy at the ask of X rather than L to be immediate wouldn't you? One problem that I would encounter by buying one unit of X at the ask price of L would be that the ask price of L may not be the lowest ask price of X and therefore may cause me to still queue to purchase the unit of X or not even fill. Can you say a little more in regards to this?
2) Further, there is one concept that I'm having a hard time to understand. Let's say that my Z score > entry threshold of +2. I would short L by one unit by selling one unit of L at the bid price of L and go long one unit of Y at the ask price of Y. Assuming hedge ratio is 1 and all. When my Z score < exit threshold of say 0.2. I would then exit my short and long position of the pair. The issue that I would encounter assuming no fees and all is that I would loose money during these trades. I'm having a hard time understanding why that would be if my Z score returned to or close to mean. Is the reason behind this due to the fact that the volatility of the bid/ask price may not be high enough to allow the difference in the entry and exit bid/ask spread price at the start and end of the transaction to pull far enough to earn money?
Please take a look at the last part of the page for this link that shows the true correlations, which are arrived at by saying "from the point of view of a pairs trader, how correlated are these tickers."
If you know how to subtract out the part of the market that floats all boats, to be left only with the information pertaining to neutral, there are extreme correlations. XLK is the ticker used in the example, but there are a thousand I could have used. When you know how to subtract out all but the neutral information, the market becomes completely different in how it appears.
Scroll to the very bottom of the article and look at the two tables with correlation information. These numbers are this way because there is so much interest in pairs trading that it tends to swamp things out. It is even more pronounced in Europe.
1) I think you are getting a bit confused; X is not a real thing, it's a synthetic asset formed by the basket of L and S. X has a price to buy and a price to sell which you calculate from the bids and asks of the components. If you cross the spread, generally, you trade immediately in small enough size. You only have uncertainty about fills if you try to earn the spread. That gets much more difficult.
2) Maybe. If your trades are not making money, I mean, that's a big problem. I can't answer why they are not making money. It could be transaction costs like the bid/ask spreads, you should analyze the volatility of your baskets as a function of the bid/ask spreads you have to pay. If you have to cross four 5-cent spreads to try and capture a spread mean-reversion of 2 cents, well yeah you are going to have problems. A bigger problem I found was that mean reversion happens one of two ways; either the asset reverts to the mean, or the mean converges with the asset (assuming you are constantly recomputing the mean, which seems to be common practice). In both cases your z-score goes back to zero, but only in the first case do you make any money.
daniel I read your article, the correlations at the end, are those of prices, or returns ?
Thanks for clearing that up for me. The idea of using synthetic assets is relatively new to me. I went and researched it a little and noticed that it is often used to capture streams of cash flow. I'm currently trying to perform residual pairs trading with Chinese Future Contracts. As I research it for the use of Futures, I don’t really find much articles or explanations. Is it applicable to Futures?
At the same time, I'm relatively new at this and trying to go through the lectures and stuff to learn. When you say I should analyze the volatility of my baskets as a function of the bid/ask spreads. Do you know where I can find a lecture that discuss this further? Sorry to ask some fundamental questions. One thing I notice in my data is that the bid/ask spread is really small and by small the it is just a spread of one tick of the futures contract; while the Volume for that tick is also small just around 80 or less contracts for either bid or ask.
The correlations are about prices, but just a subset.
(I have edited this down, as compared to what you probably have in . Please don't copy anything from the onto the board.)
James - maybe? You need pairs/baskets with enough variance to profitably trade the mean reversion. There tends to be a spectrum; structurally correlated assets (like ETF vs their component baskets) are perfect to trade, so perfect, that everyone does it and therefore the deviations are probably less than the spread. Then there's really shitty pairs which you find doing brute force analysis of the stock market. These have lots of variance, but they probably don't converge, and/or the relationship is totally spurious. Read closely Aaron Brown's posts on this thread. You want something in the middle.
Danial - I am not sure how useful correlations of prices of any kind are ? They are bound to be super high.
By itself I don't believe there is any one thing that is useful for a neutral strategy.
My approach is to look at the market as being represented by several hundred core waveform, and similar to the idea of Fourier Transform, you can use these fundamental waveform to create the 4000 heaviest played stocks. So, basically everything I believe about the market is based on the idea of correlations, as this is what I used as one of the first steps to find those wave forms. (which are not easy to find.)
Consider if you have Tickers AAA and BBB, and they are two similar stocks.
AAA might have as its composite the waves A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, and BBB may have D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L.
During the times that there is little to no activity in the components A, B, C, K, L then the two tickers would be nearly perfectly correlated. But if suddenly component A had news (for example), then the perfect correlations would no longer hold, since stock BBB does not have an A component waveform..
If you apply the above to the idea of mean reversion, then you can see what I believe the mean reversion strategy is actually about.
In my opinion the best way to play a neutral strategy would be to devise a portfolio that is about the underlying fundamental wave components..
And in the interest of completeness, I will mention that in the above examples, waves A, B, C, etc are also made of composite waves, (and those composites . ) as the market is self referencing. The several hundred are at the bottom of the self referencing, and are something that exists in theory, that I believe I could "easily" find, but have not spent the time and energy to do so as of this date.
I also believe that if I had data for all the major markets of the world and was able to deduce the underlying component waves for those instruments that are heavily played by the collectively speaking, multi-trillion dollar funds, that the sum of these waves would (except for inflation) most of these times sum to be zero.
Some researchers generate the log price series of two equities with the daily close. Then the spread series is estimated using regression analysis based on log price series data. For equities X and Y, they run linear regression over the log price series and get the coefficient β.
Any reason they use log price series instead?
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The material on this website is provided for informational purposes only and does not constitute an offer to sell, a solicitation to buy, or a recommendation or endorsement for any security or strategy, nor does it constitute an offer to provide investment advisory services by Quantopian.
In addition, the material offers no opinion with respect to the suitability of any security or specific investment. No information contained herein should be regarded as a suggestion to engage in or refrain from any investment-related course of action as none of Quantopian nor any of its affiliates is undertaking to provide investment advice, act as an adviser to any plan or entity subject to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended, individual retirement account or individual retirement annuity, or give advice in a fiduciary capacity with respect to the materials presented herein. If you are an individual retirement or other investor, contact your financial advisor or other fiduciary unrelated to Quantopian about whether any given investment idea, strategy, product or service described herein may be appropriate for your circumstances. All investments involve risk, including loss of principal. Quantopian makes no guarantees as to the accuracy or completeness of the views expressed in the website. The views are subject to change, and may have become unreliable for various reasons, including changes in market conditions or economic circumstances.
The material on this website is provided for informational purposes only and does not constitute an offer to sell, a solicitation to buy, or a recommendation or endorsement for any security or strategy, nor does it constitute an offer to provide investment advisory services by Quantopian.
In addition, the material offers no opinion with respect to the suitability of any security or specific investment. No information contained herein should be regarded as a suggestion to engage in or refrain from any investment-related course of action as none of Quantopian nor any of its affiliates is undertaking to provide investment advice, act as an adviser to any plan or entity subject to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended, individual retirement account or individual retirement annuity, or give advice in a fiduciary capacity with respect to the materials presented herein. If you are an individual retirement or other investor, contact your financial advisor or other fiduciary unrelated to Quantopian about whether any given investment idea, strategy, product or service described herein may be appropriate for your circumstances. All investments involve risk, including loss of principal. Quantopian makes no guarantees as to the accuracy or completeness of the views expressed in the website. The views are subject to change, and may have become unreliable for various reasons, including changes in market conditions or economic circumstances.